Pala d’Oro

The Pala d’Oro in Saint Mark’s, Venice, is an example of an object with a dual cultural origin. Originally an antependium – which scarcely exists in the Byzantine tradition – it was commissioned by the Venetians from Constantinopolitan craftsmen, in a technique in which the latter were masters. The Pala d’Oro became the altarpiece that may be seen today after a series of alterations and enrichments: a second commission from Constantinople modified it, then the plaques were stolen in Constantinople during the Latin occupation, and finally the Venetian enamels were added.

It is a heterogeneous piece, in terms of both technique and style. Initially a silver antependium, commissioned in Constantinople by Doge Pietro Orseolo (976–78), it had probably already been decorated with enamels. A few enamels on the present altarpiece could date from this first phase. A new commission was made in 1105 by Ordelafo Faliero for a gold altarpiece decorated in precious stones and enamels. The four Evangelists may date from this period: they were among the first works enamelled in Venetian workshops. In 1209, during the rule of Doge Pietro Ziani (1205–29), the Pala d’Oro was made larger. The pieces added were probably Venetian booty from the Fourth Crusade. The patriarch of Constantinople, passing through Venice in 1438 to take part in the Council of Florence, recognised the enamels that came from the Monastery of the Pantokrator in Constantinople occupied by the Venetians in 1204. Venetian enamels were also added during this phase. The Venetians had assimilated Byzantine enamel techniques, but, for all that, the enamels produced in Venice were not of the same quality as those of Constantinople.

The form of the Pala d’Oro as we know it today dates from 1342–45, during the time of Doge Andrea Dandolo. This alteration was linked to the new Gothic arch and was an attempt at moving closer – in the arrangement of the images – to the iconographic canons of the West. New Venetian enamels were added. Later restorations did not further alter the Pala d’Oro and had more to do with maintaining it.

The upper section of the Pala d’Oro comprises six scenes of the great feast days of the Church on one side and the Archangel Michael on the other. Thirty-eight small enamels, as well as precious stones, decorate this part. In the centre, Christ Pantokrator is accompanied by the four Evangelists. Above him is the throne of hetoimasia, flanked by two cherubs and two angels. Above that is a representation of the Virgin between Empress Irene and Doge Ordelafo Faliero. The enamel depicting Doge Ordelafo Faliero has been reworked; it was thought to originally depict a Byzantine emperor whose wife’s name was Irene. Although it is impossible to identify the emperor with certitude, it was probably an emperor of the Comnenus dynasty, perhaps Alexius I (1081–1118) or John II (1118–43). On either side of the central panel, three rows are occupied by six figures each. The archangels, leaning towards the central figure, occupy the upper register. There are full-length portraits of the Apostles and of the Prophets on the lower register. Twenty-seven enamels comprising scenes from the life of Saint Mark and scenes from the Gospels adorn three sides of the central section. They were added during the third phase. The border that frames the Pala d’Oro itself bears a few enamelled medallions.