The Macedonians (867-1056)

Basil I was born in Macedonia in a very modest family that had originated in Armenia. To gain power, he resorted to intrigue: he married Eudoxia, the mistress of Michael III (842-867), when she was pregnant with the emperor's child. In 866, he assassinated Bardas, becoming co-emperor with Michael III. The situation lasted barely a year before he assassinated Michael III so that he could reign alone. Basil I's reign (867-886) was the beginning of a long dynasty: the Macedonian dynasty. Its founders' conquests considerably expanded the Byzantine Empire towards the east, right to Armenia, and to the west, to the eastern part of the Adriatic and southern Italy.

When the son of Basil I, Leo VI the Wise, took power (886-912), the situation in Bulgaria worsened. Under the reign of Tsar Boris (852-889), the Bulgars had embraced Christianity and the Bulgarian Church had accepted the jurisdiction of Constantinople. His son Simeon (889-927), however, invaded the lands bordering on the empire and defeated the Byzantine army. Around 900, the Byzantine army was deployed to the west of Armenia and annexed the border territories, bringing it closer to Arab territory.

Leo VI left an important legislative work, initiated by Basil I who wished to revise the Justinian code. After lengthy preparation, the Basilica, a Greek version of the collected laws of Justinian, saw the light of day. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, son of Leo VI, also made a contribution to public law with his De administrando imperio.

Constantine VII, whose legitimacy was contested by Patriarch Nicholas Mysticus, was still a child when he was proclaimed emperor (913-959). Romanus I Lecapenus, commander of the imperial fleet, acted as regent. During his reign (920-944) Romanus I Lecapenus attached particular importance to winning back Armenia and Bulgaria. Constantine VII acceded to the throne after Romanus I died in 944, and pursued his predecessor's policies. The frontiers of the empire were extended eastwards. A highly cultivated man, he wrote De Thematibus, a historical and geographical description of the Byzantine provinces, as well as De Caeremoniis aulae byzantinae, a treatise on courtly ceremonial, imperial liturgy and various important monuments of Constantinople.

Constantine VII was succeeded by his son Romanus II (959-963), who liberated Crete from the Arabs in 961. The victory was mainly due to General Nicephorus Phocas, who led the expedition and who took the title of emperor (963-969) after the death of Romanus II, as he married the widow of Romanus II, Theophano. He won many military victories, particularly when he conquered Cilicia and Armenia, and during the siege of Antioch in 969. Later that year, however, he was assassinated by John Tzimisces (969-976), who then acceded to the throne.

The reign of Basil II (976-1025), son of Romanus II, left a significant mark on the long-lasting, powerful Macedonian dynasty. He was very young at his father's death, and Nicephorus Phocas and John Tzimisces acted as regents. Basil II strengthened his authority through numerous military successes. He was victorious over the Bulgars, and won the decisive battle of Kleidion in 1014, which enabled the Byzantine Empire to govern the Bulgars until 1186. When Bulgaria surrendered, Basil II, who hoped to control the Caucasian routes, seized the western part of Armenia: Theodosiopolis, Manzikert, and finally Vaspurakan. In the west, he won back the Apulia and Calabrian regions from the Arabs. He was preparing to attack Sicily, also under Arab domination, but died in 1025.

When he died, the vast, powerful empire extended from Calabria to the Caucacus, and from the Danube to the Euphrates. As a superior power, its political and cultural influence was felt far beyond its frontiers. The strong military situation coincided with a significant increase in population and economic expansion.

When the period of iconoclasm ended and prosperity returned, culture and the arts flourished. Classic Greek literature was rediscovered and patristic texts were studied. Paideia (education) was provided in schools and, from 863 onwards, at the university, an institution Bardas had founded, located in a building of the Great Palace, the Magnaura. A cultivated elite encouraged the production of books and miniscule script was favoured. It had most certainly been invented in the eighth century, and definitively replaced uncial script in the ninth century. The scriptorium of the Studius Monastery in Constantinople is one of the most famous copyist workshops, and together with the scriptoria of the patriarchate and the imperial palace produced a considerable number of manuscripts. Silks, ivories and metallic objects were also produced in Constantinople's imperial workshops, illustrating the artistic effervescence and wealth of the Empire at the time.

The artistic revival that characterised the Macedonian dynasty is also visible in the constructions that were undertaken in the city. Byzantine architecture evolved by using an equal armed cross plan in religious building. Strikingly different from the model for sizeable early Christian basilicata, the equal-armed cross plan churches are of modest dimensions and are usually private or monastic churches. The decoration of existing churches was restored and new iconography following precise rules was implemented, such as the illustration of Christ Pantokrator inside the dome.

E. Y.