The Palaeologi (1261-1453)

After the alliance with the Latins, the situation of the Nicaean Empire became critical. The coalition brought together William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaia (1246–78), Manfred I of Sicily (1258–66), and Michael II Ducas (1230–66 or 68), the despot of Epirus. General Michael Palaeologus, initially named regent by the members of John Lascaris' court, had himself crowned co-emperor in 1259. In the meanwhile, dissent was rife within the Latin coalition; furthermore, the Byzantines took Thessaly and Epirus.

The main objective of Michael Palaeologus was to win back the city of Constantinople. His first attempt in 1260, however, was a failure. His troupes, under the command of General Alexius Strategopoulos, took advantage of the absence of the Latin army and managed to take the city one night. Michael Palaeologus entered the restored capital with great pomp and was crowned emperor at Hagia Sophia in 1261. In the same year, towards Christmas, he blinded his young co-emperor John IV Lascaris and became the sole emperor of Byzantium.

Michael VIII Palaeologus had to combat the Latins, who counter-attacked violently, prepared by Charles of Anjou[1]. Charles reached an agreement with Baldwin II of Courtenay[2] and William of Villehardouin to take back Constantinople. To counter the planned crusade of Charles of Anjou, Michael VIII negotiated the union of the Eastern and Western churches. In 1274, during the Council of Lyon, the pope and a Byzantine delegation proclaimed a rapprochement founded on mutual tolerance, a declaration that appeared to signal the end of the schism. Although this meant that the principles of the crusade were no longer valid, Charles of Anjou organised several expedition against Constantinople. None, however, achieved any success.

Despite the efforts of Michael VIII Palaeologus to restore the unity of the Byzantine Empire, the states that had been formed subsequent to the fall of Constantinople in 1204 refused to give up their independence and submit to an emperor who was at the initiative of a union with the Western church. Conflicts with the West ruined what remained of Byzantine power, considerably weakening an empire under the constant threat of Slav and Turk attacks.

The decline of the empire truly commenced with the reign of Michael VIII's son, Andronicus II Palaeologus (1282–1328). He attempted to regain the people's confidence by rejecting the Union of Lyon as soon as he ascended the throne. To remedy the disastrous financial situation of the empire, Andronicus II decided to reduce the army and the navy even though the empire was being attacked on all fronts on a daily basis.

A civil war opposed Andronicus II and his grandson, Andronicus III. In 1328, Andronicus III took power with the support of General John Cantacuzenus, who helped him to re-establish imperial power over Epirus and Thessaly. In the north, he repulsed the Bulgars and annexed many Greek provinces that had seceded after 1204. The sudden death of Andronicu III in 1341 plunged Byzantium into incertitude once again. Civil war was raging, weakening the empire, especially as foreign powers were playing an active role.

By the time John V Palaeologus (1354–76) took power, the situation was desperate. In 1372, he agreed to become the vassal of the Ottoman Emir Murad. His son Andronicus, who was horrified by the decision, ascended the throne in 1376. Bayezid I, son of Murad, laid siege to Constantinople in 1392. The Westerners responded immediately but their expedition was a failure. Respite came to Constantinople, however, because the unity of the Ottoman state was destroyed by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, whom Bayezid confronted in 1402 in Ankara.

The Ottoman state was quickly built up again, and won back all its lost territories. Under the reign of Sultan Mehmed I, who ascended the throne in 1413, peace was kept until 1421. Hostilities recommenced when Murad II (1421–51) laid siege to Constantinople in 1422 and forced Manuel II Palaeologus (1391–1425) to sign a treaty of subjection. The catastrophic situation with which Manual II's son, John VIII Palaeologus (1425–48), was faced forced him to begin negotiating with the West in 1431. The contact established ended with the union of the Churches at the Council of Florence in 1439.

In 1449, Constantine XI succeeded his brother John VIII, who had died in 1448. On the Ottoman side, Mehmed II took the throne in 1451. His main objective was to conquer Constantinople. Constantine XI also sought aid from the West, but they only offered weak military support. Despite the joint efforts of the Byzantines and the Latins, Mehmed II took Constantinople on 20 May 1453. In the years that followed, he razed the last centres of resistance, took the Duchy of Athens in 1456, and the Despotate of Morea in 1460. Last, the Greek Empire of Trebizond capitulated in 1461.

By the end of the Latin occupation in 1261, a significant number of the monuments of Constantinople had been destroyed or vandalised. When Michael VIII Palaeologus began his reign, he ordered the monuments to be restored. New constructions had already begun. The religious architecture of this period shows examples of luxuriously decorated, highly crafted work.

It is the pictorial work that best shows the evolution of Byzantine art between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. The second half of the thirteenth century marked the end of the Middle Byzantine period; in the fourteenth century, new narrative cycles were introduced, manifest in the multiplication of the number of scenes depicted in the churches. Icon painting holds a special place in this artistic renaissance, in terms of both the number of works produced and the fine quality of their artistry. Local schools soon sprang up in Greece, Cyprus and Crete, each developing its own style.

In the realm of sumptuary arts, embroidery flourished. The production of illuminated manuscripts was not nearly as important as in previous centuries. There were considerably fewer miniatures to illustrate the manuscripts. Among the most remarkable works are several imperial manuscripts whose illustrations were confined to portraits of emperors painted in the style typical of the art of the Palaeologi.

E. Y.