The Umayyad of Al-Andalus (756 – 1032)

At the beginning of the 8th century, the Arab-Berber forces reached the lands bordering what they called the “Surrounding Ocean” (the Atlantic) and killed the last Visigoth king of Hispania on the battlefield. A new page had turned in the history of the Iberian Peninsula, which from this moment would be re-named al-Andalus. What was one of the last provinces to be annexed by the Damascus caliphate, would over the following centuries become the most powerful state of the western Mediterranean, capable of successively facing up to the Carolingians and the Fatimids as well as keeping up privileged diplomatic relations with Byzantium. The Umayyad family must have found it hard to imagine that this far off land was to become their final refuge after they had been wiped out in the Orient. The Abbasid revolution in 750 had put a brutal end to the dynasty through the massacre of its principal members. One of the survivors ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Mu’awiya, the grandson of caliph Hisham b. al-Malik managed to establish himself as the emir of al-Anadalus after a long odyssey involving many alliances and an equal number of conflicts. From this moment, al-Andalus would no longer be under the control of Abbasid caliphate recently come to power in Iraq.

The first centuries of Umayyad power on the peninsula were marked by numerous revolts, bringing into question the legitimacy of their rule. This cumulated in the second half of the 9th century (879 – 880) with a period of anarchy (fitna). The Islamic state of al-Andalus was finally consolidated when Abd al-Rahman III adopted the title of caliph. More than a simple declaration of prestige aimed at Baghdad, this constituted a political weapon with which they could confront the Shiite, Fatimid caliphs, who had been the rulers of Ifriqiya (today’s Tunisia) since the beginning of the 10th century. This new regime, known as the caliphate of Cordoba, experienced its years of greatest splendour under the reign of al-Raman II and his son al-Hakim II. In 976 however, a chamberlain named al-Mansur snatched power, imposed a military government and set about creating his own dynasty. The situation worsened and in 1009 civil war broke out involving the Berbers, Arabs and Christian mercenaries. The caliphate was eventually abolished in 1031 but al-Andalus was broken up into numerous principalities led by local warlords (muluk al-tawa’if).

Throughout this period the capital and seat of government was Cordoba (Qurtuba), an ancient Roman town, set in the middle of fertile plains irrigated by the Guadalquivir. The city soon expanded beyond the walled madina, where the principal administrative and religious institutions were situated (the great mosque, the residences of the emirs, the souks etc) as well as public services (the bathhouse, the funduk) and private residences and a score of densely populated, partially planned suburbs sprouted up. At its zenith in the 10th century, Cordoba was the political, economic and cultural centre of al-Andalus as well as being the largest city in Western Europe. It was known as “the mother of all towns” and was admired by Muslims and Christians alike.

Qurtuba was both a model and an exception on the landscape of al-Andalus. On one hand it acted as a framework for the introduction of elements of the new religion: the mosque, the bathhouse… On the other, it acted as a centre for administrative, fiscal and military institutions as well as centralizing commercial activity and thus necessitating the creation or re-activation of distribution networks to compliment the establishment of a unique centralized monetary system. This period of economic success was subject to fluctuation however, especially during the caliphate. This was due to a series of natural disasters as well as political instability and is illustrated by the irregular minting of coins and money.

The city’s status as an ideological centre linked directly to the ruling power made it an exceptional case. During this period, both architecturally and artistically, Cordoba played heavily on ostentation as an integral part of the dynasty’s propaganda policies. The most obvious examples of this are the Great Mosque and the Madinat al-Zahra palace, whose splendour and size were equalled by the human and material investment in its construction.

The Great Mosque was founded in 786 by ‘Abd al-Rahmân I to replace the existing primitive house of worship that in part occupied a former church. His successors continued to enlarge it over the years partially to welcome an expanding population but also through their desire for prestige. From the very first phase of its construction, this edifice was a combination of Oriental and local as well as traditional and innovative elements. Its hypostyle prayer room with its naves perpendicular to the qibla wall differs from the tradition by the addition of superimposed arcades combining semi-circular and horseshoe arches, a precedent which would be respected during later modifications. The sumptuous décor of epigraphical and floral motifs on a gold background decorating the tiles of the mihrab date from the reign of al-Hakam II and for which he employed the skills of Byzantine craftsmen. It is the culmination of a hierarchical layout involving materials salvaged from elsewhere and the playful use of polychromes and volumes.

This technique of manipulating space and architectural ornamentation can be seen at its best in the Madinat al-Zahra (Literally “the shining palace”), where it is perfectly integrated into this palatial complex designed to underline the power of the Umeyyad state. Its construction was begun on the orders of Abd al-Rahman III between 936 – 940. It required heavy investment in transportation routes, a hydraulic system and quarries for the stone. It has an area of 112 hectares within its walls, which reach as far the buttresses of the Sierra Morena, 8 km to the west of Cordoba. It is divides into three terraces occupied by gardens private residences and military quarters. The topography, which was designed as an integral element of the “staging” of the complex, adds enormously to the originality of this small town, conceived to house the administrative services of the state. The reception room (the salon rico) is a concentration of the symbolism of the complex based on the tree of life and the decorative palm leaf.

The smaller art objects also include elements of the caliphal ideology: ivory chests and pyxides destined for members of the caliph’s close personal circle are decorated with great refinement and complexity and include distinctive signs of sovereignty. Even more explicit, is the epigraphic message that decorates the distinctive green pottery: al-muluk (power), which was the general motto of the Ummeyad of al-Andalus.

S.G.