The Mamluks (1250 – 1517)

The last sultans of the Ayyubid dynasty put together a large retinue of bodyguards, which was made up of slaves (mamluk in Arabic) captured as children principally in Central Asia. These Mamluks would eventually overthrow the dynasty and take power in Egypt and Syria from 1250. They took the title of sultan for their own and the position was passed on through their ranks according to a system, which took into account the prestige of the candidates but which was also based on a process of election. Their rule, which lasted almost three centuries, is generally divided into two periods. The first era (1250 – 1390) was that of the Bahri Mamluks, (from the Arabic bahr meaning “of the river” referring to their barracks on the island of Rawda on the Nile). The second dynasty (1390 – 1517) was that of the Burji Mamluks (from the word burji meaning “of the tower” referring to their base in the citadel), who were mainly Circassians.

The Mamluks were born of a strong military tradition and they were able to decisively repel the Mongol invasion at the battle of  `Ayn Djalût in 1260.  In the same year, al-Malik al-Zâhir Baybars (r 1260 – 1277) seized power and truly consolidated the dynasty. He maintained cordial relations with Byzantium and entered into alliances with the Golden Horde sultanate and with the Anatolian Seljuqs against the Il-Khanate of Iran. He further legitimised his rule by giving refuge to the last Abbasid caliph, who had been overthrown by the Mongols in 1258, and thus regained control of Islam’s holy sites. Although under his reign Syria continued to play an important role – he constructed his mausoleum in Damascus –, Cairo was to become the true centre of the dynasty under his successors. Qalawun (r 1279 – 1290) established his dynasty there (fourteen of his descendants continued his rule) and like Baybars before him continued to fight the Crusaders, who were finally driven from the Holy Land with the capture of Acre, Tyre and Beirut in 1291.

The Mamluk dynasty reached new heights and developed its personality under the long but intermittent rule of al-Malik al-Nâsir Muhammad (r 1293 – 1294, 1299 – 1309 and most significantly 1310 – 1341). The generous artistic patronage of the sultan, his powerful emirs and nobility led to the construction of many of the surviving monuments and numerous artefacts from this artistic golden age, which bears witness to a long period of peace and prosperity.

In 1323, a treaty was signed with the Il-Khanate, which led to increased exchanges with Iran. At the same time, strong ties were developed with the Rassulids from Yemen, situated on the prosperous trade routes to India and China. European merchants – most importantly the Venetians – were present in the sultanate’s major cities, in the ports of Alexandria and Beirut as well in Cairo, Damascus and Aleppo and this in spite of the Papal ban on commerce with Muslims between 1320 and 1344.

With the death of al-Nâsir Muhammad, the balance of power became unstable once again – Twelve sultans ruled over a period of less than fifty years and true power fell into the hands of the emirs. Artistic patronage remained important during the fourteenth century, especially under the reign of Sultan Hassan (r 1347 – 1351 and 1354 – 1361), who is famous for his monumental funeral complex and Shaban II (r 1363 – 1376), who ordered magnificent illuminated manuscripts of the Koran.

The second half of the fourteenth century was darkened by epidemics of the plague, which ravaged Europe during the same period.

The Circassian Mamluks came into power in 1382 with Barquq at their head and under threat of the approach of Timur, who ravaged Syria in 1400-1401. The beginning of the fifteenth century confirmed the decline, which had begun at the end of the previous century. This period was marked by serious economic problems: Trade was in decline and tax revenue fell steeply, while large sums were spent on personal guards in order to remain in power. The population already suffering from the political instability was decimated by famine.

Two figures stand out amongst the succession of sultans. Barsbey (r. 1422 – 1438) conquered Cyprus in 1426 and managed to divert trade with India away from Aden towards Jeddah and thus ensure a state monopoly on spices and sugar and supplementary tax revenues. The reign of Qayatbay (r. 1468 – 1496) was something of a renaissance, with the construction of many edifices in Cairo and throughout the sultanate. He is noted for the construction of the fortress of Alexandria, built on the ruins of the Hellenistic Lighthouse. His government was moderate and he encouraged the development of trade, particularly with the Europeans. At the end of his reign a terrible plague epidemic again claimed a large proportion of the population and brought on famine and a new phase of instability.

In 1501 Qansuh al-Ghawrî came to power and his reign seemed set to improve the situation. His taxes filled the state coffers and he oversaw the construction of many edifices, while taking a great interest in literature and painting. The international context however proved to be against the Mamluk sultanate. The Portuguese, who arrived in India in 1498, ruined trade and the sultanate was unable to stand up against the rise of the Ottomans, who dethroned the last Mamluk sultan in 1517, and integrated Egypt and Syria into their empire.

The long period of Mamluk domination was an extremely rich and prosperous time especially for Egypt. The sultans were great patrons of the arts and built over five thousand monuments throughout their territories. Many of them were religious or funerary complexes, which bore witness to the fervent belief in Sunni theology of this military elite and served to legitimise their presence in the eyes of a population from whom they were totally cut off. The Mamluk military caste maintained their use of the Turkish language, although they ordered the use of Arabic for inscriptions on both buildings and objects exalting the deeds of the sultans and their emirs. The production of luxury goods increased spectacularly, particularly engraved and encrusted metal objects, assembled and encrusted wooden furniture, manufactured cloth, enamelled glass decorated with gold leaf and ceramics made in the important centres of Cairo and Damascus. Exported by merchants, exchanged by ambassadors and carried by pilgrims, many of these objects became known throughout Europe. European merchants – above all Venetians – profited from the economic decline of the sultanate at the end of the fifteenth century to flood the Egyptian and Syrian markets with their manufactured goods: soap, paper and Murano glass, all of which re-used oriental know-how in their fabrication.

C.J.