The Ecstatic Dance of the Sufis

The origins of Muslim mysticism—which, it is important to emphasize, has always comprised a very diverse range of schools of Islam—can be traced back to the ninth century in Iraq and eastern Iran. A very ascetic movement coexisted with more moderate and intellectual tendencies. At the beginning of the tenth century, there were more open demonstrations of unity with the divine presence and more ‘ecstatic’ forms of mysticism appeared. Important figures of the period, such as Nūrī, Shiblī, and Hallāj could suddenly be ‘overcome with exaltation’, even in public. During this period, Sufism also became ritualized. The fuqarā’ (‘the poor’, as the members of the movement called themselves) recited love poems together, and sang litanies in a rhythmical way. Musical instruments were sometimes used.

It is difficult to say exactly how these ceremonies were conducted. There are few written accounts, the rituals varied greatly from one community to another, and they were very often transmitted esoterically and orally—from Master to disciple. These rituals also accorded great importance to the unexpected onset of spiritual states (ahwāl): the Master, or one of his disciples, could suddenly enter a secondary state of consciousness, and eventually encourage other members of the audience to participate. Such a scene is depicted in this miniature. Four dervishes have become ‘exalted’ and are dancing or turning, with their arms outstretched. A fifth has fallen to his knees, in tears. Other dervishes are standing; people in the background are not participating in the session.

The most famous example of ecstatic mystic is Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (Anatolia, thirteenth century). Rūmī was the greatest poet in the Persian language, and devoted himself to expressing the divine love that he could see in all things created. He would often suddenly enter into a trance and whirl round. Rūmī and his disciples sometimes arranged ceremonies with a musical accompaniment and eventually anyone could attend. They could sometimes last for several days in succession. After his death, his followers formally developed the rituals of the Mevlevi Order, wrongly called ‘the whirling dervishes’.

Muslim lawyers generally had reservations about these rituals. Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) was the most comprehensive and articulate critic. This criticism was rarely levelled at the ‘ecstatic’ Sufis. From the twelfth century, their musical and singing rituals had become so popular that many lawyers even participated in them. They are now part of the Islamic religious heritage. They can of course be compared to manifestations of religious fervour—expressed through dancing—in other religions, such as in Hasidism, a Jewish sect founded in the eighteenth century.