Music and Dance

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Mediterranean music, chants ans instruments

Music in the Mediterranean Basin is essentially associated with the human voice—a single solo voice or voices in unison. It is characterized by two styles of oral tradition: polyphony in the north and homophony (a combination of all the voices) in the south. These two aspects will be looked at in a synchronic manner. Musical instruments, which form a tangible link between the North and South, will be dealt with diachronically, because they were in constant circulation throughout history.

From polyphonic chants to solo chants

Polyphonic music is a texture consisting of at least three independent melodic voices, which, when overlaid, form a musical texture that is generally sung but can be orchestrated. Polyphony broadly symbolizes the growth of western music that began in the Middle Ages. It covers the whole of Europe and is essentially written, as this is the form in which it has been conserved. It represents an important point in western history, and consists—as indicated by its name—of several tones that sound simultaneously (a minimum of three, as in organum, but can be as many as forty tones, as was the case in the works of Thomas Tallis during the English Renaissance). These melodic lines are arranged in accordance with the rules of counterpoint. Polyphony also continued in oral tradition, and is well established on the northern fringe of the Mediterranean. This tradition was only revealed in the twentieth century. Its existence had until then remained unknown, as oral polyphony was confined to inaccessible mountainous areas and had therefore escaped scrutiny. It essentially existed in isolation, which in many respects explains its ancientness. But there’s currently no documentation to confirm this.

Oral polyphony has been discovered in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and in Liguria, in the Genoese region. It’s also very common in many Italian provinces: Campania, Basilicata, Calabria, and so on. In Greece, it has been discovered in the mountainous area of Epirus, a region that extends into Albania, another mountainous country where this vocal system is widespread. It also plays an important part in the music of Georgia, Abkhazia, Adjara, in the heart of the Caucasus. It reappears amongst the Don Cossacks on the northern side of the Black Sea, beyond the Mediterranean (in the accepted sense of the term). Oral polyphonies have also been discovered in Croatia, in the Portuguese province of Alentejo, the southern French Alps, and in Tyrol. Curiously, they’re not found in Spain, a country which historically is known to have developed written polyphony, the quintessence of the country’s learned art. But there’s no equivalent in popular oral tradition. Nonetheless, it must have existed, as the conquistadores transmitted tonos de rompida—oral polyphony consisting of three voices—to Venezuela. However, oral polyphony—known as ternario (three voices), which is sung annually during the Festa o Misteri d'Elx (a liturgic medieval celebration)—still exists in the city of Elche in Spain, in the heart of the Valencian region. It has since been definitively transferred into a written form.

The theory that oral polyphony is nothing more than a derivative of written polyphony—and therefore a modified form of polyphony—is supported by many specialists who point out that polyphony first originated in the Church during the Middle Ages. Historically, polyphony first developed in the Church—and more precisely in Notre-Dame de Paris—and was diffused from that source. But polyphonies in Mediterranean oral tradition are very different from each other. They do, however, attest to the existence of a common core tradition whose musical texture has—over the course of time—diversified to produce local variations, like the various Romance languages derived from Latin. All this undermines the theory that polyphony was diffused in written form, even though in certain cases, oral polyphonies have been influenced by written polyphony (as was the case with the Genoese trallalero and the Croatian klapa).

On the northern fringe of the Mediterranean, vocal polyphony is religious or secular. It forms an integral part of the musical conscience of Corsica, where this form of expression is more natural than singing in unison. In Corsica, secular polyphony is known as paghjella. This term stems from the root pag, which has produced the words ‘païen’ (pagan) and ‘paysan’ (peasant). The peasants were the most resistant to the arrival of Christianity and it’s hardly surprising, therefore, to discover the root pag in a term that refers to a method of singing practised by Corsican shepherds, which has become the symbol of this culture since the 1970s. Polyphonies in Mediterranean oral tradition generally consist of three voices, each of which has a specific name. The second melodic voice is the most important. There are also polyphonies consisting of four voices. The maximum number of voices is found in Greece where five or six are overlaid, each of which also has a specific name.

The dual and alternating chants

Oral polyphony is the strongest manifestation of traditional northern and insular Mediterranean music, even though it doesn’t exist everywhere. However, there are other forms of chant: dual and alternating chants.

The dual chant is another simplified form of polyphony with two voices. It requires two people to sing simultaneously in unison (a phenomenon that’s also found on the southern fringe of the Mediterranean) or distinguish their voices, by leaving an interval, making it into a two-voice system. This is the case in Italy where there’s a genre called canto à vatoccu in the Apennines. The dual chant is particularly common in the former Yugoslavia where it’s called ojkange in Croatia.

The alternating chant requires two people to sing alternatively in response to each other. This method is very common in the north of the Mediterranean and on certain islands; for example, it’s called spirtu pront in Malta. This is an improvised duel of words that are either sung or proclaimed, in which each singer attempts to beat their adversary, as the aim of the exercise is to proclaim a winner.

The solo chant

The solo chant is also common throughout the Mediterranean. The voice is generally harsh, strong, and often nasal. It rises to a high pitch that borders on a scream. Many of these chants were the basis for agricultural chants. But ballades that tell a story also enter into this category. It’s quite possible that the ensemble inspired the flamenco song technique, essentially based on the solo use of the voice with that very characteristic harshness which, for example, is found in the singing of the Gypsy singer Camarón de la Isla during his short career.

From the homophonic chant to the solo chant

Conversely to polyphony, the homophonic chant essentially consists of creating melodic unity. The voices combine to form one melodic sound. It is melodic unity in all its splendour in which singers in a group sometimes go an octave higher. This is the defining principle of singing in unison on the southern Arabic fringe of the Mediterranean. It also extends into Turkey and therefore the Near East. When instruments are added to the vocal accompaniment, they have to double the voices and not distinguish themselves by creating a separate sound. This is still a form of homophony, because the melodic line provided by the instrument isn’t autonomous but extends and consolidates the singing voice.

Homophony is therefore the opposite of polyphony, which is characteristic of the northern fringe of the Mediterranean. Although pockets of homophony exist in the north, polyphony isn’t found in the south of the Mediterranean Basin. However, the absence of polyphony is compensated by the existence of a corollary phenomenon called heterophony—a texture that’s half way between homophony and polyphony. Heterophony is a texture in which voices are overlaid without forming independent melodic voices or, conversely, singing in unison. Heterophony thus adds a feature—a veritable artistic effect—to musical texture. This heterophonic effect erupts in all its splendour in the prelude of the Moroccan nūbah, called mishāliya.

The primary role of homophony is to maintain the purity and clarity of the text that’s sung, which isn’t the case in polyphony: it distorts the text which is often incomprehensible, because the words are broken up in accordance with the principle of overlaying the voices. As in Arabic music, the work begins as a poetic text that becomes a song. The text has to maintain its intelligibility. It is traditionally believed that the transmission of the poetic message is more important than its musical nature. This is therefore a type of sung poetry, in which the text prevails and becomes the basis of perception. This hasn’t prevented Arabic solo chants and chants in unison from overcoming this constraint and becoming musical over the course of their long history.

This can be seen in several stylistic methods that attempt to escape from the tyranny of semantic expression. The first is the existence of meaningless syllables added to the sung texture. Meaningless syllables are surprisingly common in the Arabo-Andalusian nūbahfāṣil. The large numbers of these words in the sung text take away the clarity of the text to promote its musical nature. The poetic text is in this way neutralized as it is scattered with meaningless words. The most common locutions are hanana and yā layalli. These interpolations enable the listener to be carried along by the musical aspect of the work instead of focusing only on the text. and the Ottoman

Another way of escaping from the tyranny of semantic expression is to embellish the chant, i.e. employ a melisma (section of music having one syllable extended over many notes). Each syllable of the text is ornamented with several musical notes in such a way that the semantic function is largely superseded. Traditionally, the melodic line is first set out without ornamentation, and then repeated by adding melismas to it. Thus, neither the piece’s message nor the musical ornamentation is given priority. Ornamentation isn’t only limited to the south Mediterranean—it is also found in the north. The Egyptian Copts have developed this method (al-milisma) extensively. 

The suite

The oral character of the music in the south differs from that of the north in terms of musical organization. Learned thought only has meaning if the pieces sung or orchestrated succeed each other by linking together to create a suite. Erudite music—Arabic and Ottoman—is essentially governed by the notion of the suite. Historically, the suite developed in the civilization of al-Andalus and is called the nūbah. It’s a succession of pieces that are sung and orchestrated, in homophony, based on a language of classical origin. The nūbah is based around a principal mode and unmeasured improvised sections are followed by measured pieces. The idea of constructing a work by linking pieces together forms the basis of erudite music, whether secular or religious in nature. It’s also found in military music which was disseminated by the Fatimids of Egypt. Although the term nūbah no longer has any meaning in the Near East, it did form the basis of military music, which adopted a sequence similar to that of a suite. In the Near East, the term waṣlanūbah to refer to a formal concert suite. The notion of a suite that is inherent to Arabo-Islamic thought is even found in Umm Kulthūm’s long songs in the twentieth century. replaced that of

The suite came much later—in written but not in vocal music—to the northern fringe of the Mediterranean. It’s not certain whether the nūbah served as the model in this case, but it is attested in the middle of the sixteenth century under the name suytte (literally, pieces following one another). The suite later culminated in the creation of the symphony.

The solo and dual chant

This form of chant is particularly important on the southern fringe of the Mediterranean. It is often performed by a group of singers, i.e. a soloist sings and the group responds to him. However, the solo chant does exist in the north of the Mediterranean. The voices are loud, sometimes bordering on a scream, as is the case in the Moroccan Aïta, which is strikingly passionate, and the Chaouïa chant in eastern Algeria. Although the power of the voice takes precedence over the conveyance of sentiment, the voices do generally express pain through moaning and even lamentation—a form of expression that is generally predominant on the northern fringe. This is the case in the qasida, mawwāl, ‘atāba, and the Algerian aïe aïe. The urban song with its inherent gaiety stands out from this general spirit of lamentation.

Of all the solo voices on the southern fringe, two predominate: the official vocal expression of Islam through the recitation of the Qur’an and the call to prayer. But neither of these is a chant nor can be considered as music.

The circulation of musical instruments

The Mediterranean has always been a vast area of exchange for musical instruments. One of the reasons for this is the existence of a rhizome grass that grows naturally—the reed plant—in the Mediterranean region and islands. It has been exploited since High Antiquity and has facilitated the invention of a whole range of wind instruments. In Greek and Roman Antiquity, the reed was used to make sophisticated instruments, called aulos and tibia (Roman). These double-reed pipe instruments were modernized, as archaeological digs have revealed the existence of a sort of system of keys—testifying to the quality of the instruments’ fabrication—, on the first and second pipe. But this technique wasn’t transmitted to subsequent civilizations; the original material was used to produce a variation—an instrument consisting of a single pipe. An example is the oblique reed flute (mat) from pharaonic Egypt, which reappeared several thousand years later, with a different arrangement of holes, under the name nāy, which means ‘reed’. It became popular with Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, the founder of the Mawlawīyah order. Another example is the small flute (qassaba) in Arabic texts, which in Algerian musical tradition became the gasba. Other instruments, while being part of the antique heritage, have maintained the principle of two parallel single reed pipes. They led to the production of a set of instruments that are part of the clarinet family. They have now spread to the south of the Mediterranean, several islands and the north, where parallel pipes have been used for certain models of bagpipe. Although the instrument still exists in the south, it is known as mizmār (double clarinet) in the classical texts. The alboka, an original instrument derived from the reed pipe, exists in the north in the Basque Country. Lastly, there’s a triple-pipe model—the Sardinian launeddas. The instrument existed as early as the thirteenth century in Toledo and can be seen in the Cantigas de Santa Maria miniatures.

The oldest Mediterranean musical instruments have been found in archaeological digs on the island of Keros (Cyclades); they date from 2500 BC and are in the form of small individual statuettes. They represent an individual playing a double pipe, which very probably consists of two single reed pipes made from the reed plant. Another is blowing on a pan flute, a wind instrument probably made from reed pipes. A third musician is holding a harp. Harps and lyres were string instruments that were very common in Mediterranean Antiquity, but these models no longer exist. However, variations of harps and lyres from pharaonic Egypt spread to sub-Saharan Africa, and are now part of the region’s rich musical heritage.

Percussion instruments appeared much later in the Mediterranean region. This is attested in the account in Genesis (4:21) which mentions Jubal, the inventor of wind and string instruments, but doesn’t mention drums. But drums did exist in Mesopotamia. We owe the diffusion of the small, circular frame drum in the Mediterranean region—the Greeks called it the tympanon—to the Phoenicians. This instrument is still used today and plays an important role in the inherited oral tradition. It was revived by the Roma who also diffused it. It’s also known as the tambourine.

The Arab conquest

There was a rich exchange of musical instruments between the south and north of the al-Andalus civilization. Sevilla thrived as an area of exchange. The most emblematic instrument is incontestably the short-necked lute, the al-‘ūd, which is the origin of the term alaude (lute) in Spain. But the lute reached Europe by various routes: it came to Sicily and was brought to Venice by the Ottoman Turks. The French word luth is derived from the Arabic al-‘ūd, via the Ottoman Turkish word al-ut. 

Other instruments have also become part of the European instrumentarium. An example is the bowed string instrument, the rabāb or vielle, but in this case Byzantium played a role in its transmission. The instrument, known as the ‘rebec’, became important in Europe, but took a different form. Instead of holding the instrument parallel to the body, like the kemence rumi in the east and the rebab of North Africa, the rebec was held against the chest or chin, and was thus a precursor of the violin. The military band, which reached its zenith under the Fatimids of Egypt, was integrated into western civilization via al-Andalus and the Crusades. The long trumpet, nafīr, which is still played in Morocco, was incorporated into these bands and even reached England. But two borrowed instruments, in particular, played a prominent role in the development of western music: the oboe (the surna, which became the ghayta) and the timpani (naqqāra, from which the French word nacaires is derived). The oboe was destined to become a major instrument in Western music and led to the creation of the keyed oboe. Paired kettledrums entered the symphonic orchestra at the end of the eighteenth century, and then developed further.

The Ottoman civilization

The Turks adopted the idea of the Arabic military band and developed it in the most extraordinary way under the name mehter. It is known as Janissary music in European classical music and inspired many composers, including Mozart in his ‘Turkish March’.

However, the Ottomans passed on a taste for the long-necked lute—which became part of the local instrumentarium—to the parts of Europe under their control and trading partners (Italy). Hence, it was known as the colascione in the eighteenth century in Italy. But the taste for long-necked lutes has been maintained and developed in the musical customs of countries that were under Turkish influence (Greece, Albania, and the former Yugoslavia). The most recent addition is the Greek bouzouki, which was introduced just after the First World War.

Western ascendancy

Western ascendancy began in 1828, when Sultan Mahmud II of Turkey dissolved the Janissary corps and replaced their band with a European style military band under Italian instruction. This marked the beginning of Western hegemony. The violin became a definitive part of the Arabic and Turkish orchestras and the clarinet became a major instrument in Hellenic and Turkish musical traditions. Jordan has inherited a range of pipe bans from the English. Western music has since continued to influence the development of eastern music.

Ch. P.

Dance

Chain dances

In a geographical area extending from Kosovo and Macedonia in the west to Palestine and Israel in the east, and penetrating into the interior of Asia towards Iran and the Caucasus – therefore far from the Mediterranean basin – people form a semicircle to dance. This type of dance is known as a chain dance or open-circle dance. This model is the most representative of this area without however claiming to be exhaustive. It determines a dance structure that symbolises this region of the Mediterranean.

The semicircle turns slowly round on itself. The dancers who form the semicircle hold each others’ hands or join their fingertips. They place their arms on their neighbour’s shoulder, but this is a recent variant. The arms hang towards the ground or, conversely, are raised to shoulder height. The way of holding one’s neighbour’s hand is natural, or arms are crossed. A handkerchief sometimes separates the dancers. The distribution of the sexes varies according to region. Generally, there is an alternation of men and women, but chains made up of men, with women at the end, are also common. There are, moreover, variants featuring dancers of the same sex, men only or women only. The minimum number of dancers required for this structure is three. This is the case for the Greek sirtaki, but it is a contemporary example. The leader guides the steps: forwards, backwards or sideways. The leader is at the front of the chain and often holds a handkerchief that he or she waves. The musicians accompanying these dances face the dancers and are inside the semicircle. The wind and percussion instruments are powerful. The chain dance is by definition an open-air choreography.

There are numerous local terms for these semicircular formations, but in Greece the word syrtos prevails. That of kalamatianos (from the Kalamata region of the Peloponnese) is also common. In Turkey, two generic terms are used, bar and halay. In the Arab Near East, the generic term dabka, pronounced dialectally as dabke, predominates. This term derives from local idioms, as it is unknown to classical Arabic lexicography. It was recently borrowed in contemporary Hebrew as dabka and dabkot in the plural.

In this linguistic miscellany, the word syrtos clearly stands out, as it appeared in antiquity; it was cited in the first century AD. An inscription found in Boeotia tells us that Epaminondas wanted syrti (one of the two plurals of syrtos, the other being syrta) to be danced during processions. It is difficult to give a verdict on its nature and establish a link with the present shuffling dance step, but they are most likely related. In this respect, the archaeology of Greece revealed many remains in which this chain formation predominates. It was already attested in the Minoan civilisation that flourished in Crete between 2700 and 1200 BC. In Syria, there are other pieces of evidence, as may be seen in one of the local words for the dabka – ashūriyya, which means from Assyria.

It is not known what the function of the chain dance in antiquity was and if it was sacred in nature. In the present survivals, it is performed during celebrations. In the islands of the Dodecanese, it is a pretext for finding a future spouse. Its signification is thus social. In the Constantinople of the past, the chain dance known as the hasapikos symbolised the butchers’ guild; this Byzantine tradition was known as the makellarikos.

Closed-circle dances

Although present, the circle dance is rare in this region. In Crete, it determined the war dance known as the pentozali. It was, however, Islam that brought it to its zenith by means of its confraternities. The circular formation became sacred, and it was called halqa, which means ring or circle. It is also known as dhikr, a term that refers to the remembrance of God, as the trance and ecstasy are dependent on the circularity. The dancers clung to each other and uttered, in a sort of groan, the syllables of the name of God. According to the techniques, which vary from one confraternity to another, the chest starts swaying backwards and forwards.

In Turkey, there is an Islamic variant (ayin) in which the circle is determined by a series of individuals separated from each other but who spin round, reconstituted the spirit of the group circle. It is the dance of the whirling dervishes, a perfect example of the evolution of the group to the collective dance.

Dances for couples of the opposite sex or same-sex duel dances

These dances are characterised by dancers leaving the chain to form one or more couples. It is probably a recent phenomenon resulting from the importance acquired by couple dances in Europe. This is very common in Albania. However, it is in Greece with the halos dance that it reached its peak. The halos begins with a chain figuration, which develops in a curious fashion. The chain breaks. The dancers then form independent couples who can also form a circle. At the same time, the duel dances of Turkey and Syria are choreographed enactments of combat.

Individual dances

Particularly rare, individual dances were known in Istanbul during the Ottoman Empire. One was danced by the gypsies, or chengi, after whom it is named. In the late nineteenth century, it was called the çiftetelli because it was accompanied by a double-stringed lute, the çiftetelli. It was danced individually by women or by effeminate young men, the kōchek, who were called yamaki in Greece. Its movements are similar to those of the Egyptian dance known as the belly dance, which emphasises the hips.

However, there exists in Turkey and Syria a rare individual dance for men. It is known as the zeybek in south-western Turkey and the ‘arabiyya or halabiyya in Syria, as it is often danced in Aleppo. It is a dance that is striking in its slowness and majesty. It brings out the human qualities of the individual: honour, generosity and nobility.

Circle dances

The circular formation is the foundation for European dances. It is a frame of reference in Mediterranean traditions extending from Bulgaria in the east to Spain and Portugal in the west. But in many cases, the circle broke to give rise to couple dances that also symbolise the European specificity. In geographical terms, the circle dance also encompasses northern Europe. In the European tradition, the dancers form a closed circle and hold out their arms, taking hold of the hands or shoulders of their neighbours. That is why in medieval France the dance was called the ronde (round), a term that precisely reflects the reality. In Calabria today, the word rota is used for the ring, which however is now only occupied by two individuals, sometimes of the same sex. As a rule, there is an alternation of the sexes in the closed-circle dance. The closed-circle dance requires at least four dancers, which is corroborated by many testimonies. The number of dancers is unlimited; a hundred or so individuals may be called on, as is the case in Sardinia. The dancers always face the inside of the circle, which may have represented a sacred space in the past, but in Serbia there are variants in which the dancers turn their backs to it. There are many different types of figures determined by the circle dance: sometimes the circle turns, sometimes it remains fixed. It often breaks up and turns into a crowd of figures, including those of autonomous couples who also arrange themselves in a circle. We also know about the existence of the circle within the circle, and the multiplication of contiguous circles. Movements of the arms and feet define the choreography, and sometimes the dancers are called upon to sing. The circle dance is essentially an open-air dance.

The name of this type of dance varies from region to region. In the former Yugoslavia, it is called kolo or oro, which became hora in Romania and Bulgaria. In France, the word carole is derived from the English and refers to the songs danced during the Christmas period. In France, the branle survives, although it has evolved into a version for couples; the rond is also danced. In Spain, the sardana – the Catalan dance par excellence – is a circle dance in all its splendour. In Sardinia, the su ballu is a circle dance. In northern Portugal, the characteristic of the pirulo is that the dancers form a circle without holding hands.

There are original variants that have emerged in turn: in them, the circle breaks up to form unexpected scenarios, including the serpentine. One example is the famous farandole of Provence. A similar dance in Greece is the tsakonikos of the southern Peloponnese. In Serbia the serpentine dance is called the zupcanka and is a variant of the kolo. In the Catalan country, it is called the ball cerdà. All these choreographies are derivatives of the circle dance. Another variant that still exists in Catalonia, Provence and Sicily is the danse des cordelles. In this dance, long ribbons (cordelles) – held by each of the male and female dancers – are attached to a pole, which symbolises the centre of the circle. The choreography consists in turning around the pole in double lines – men on the inside and women on the outside. This is an example of the collective circle.

An Etruscan vase in the Museo Archeologico of Palermo depicts a circle dance. It is difficult, however, to confirm the figuration, which could be related to either a closed circle or a chain dance. In the Middle Ages, the written documentation confirms, in no uncertain terms, its existence. It thus constituted the basic structure of European choreography before it evolved into couple dances.

Couple dances

There are many couple dances in the Mediterranean region, but they are also widespread in the rest of Europe. The variants of circle formations that are couple dances comprising a mixed couple, two couples or several couples allow at least their initial appearance to be dated, but for the most famous of them, the tarantella of southern Italy and the bourrée auvergnate, no indication is given throughout their histories that would enable their hypothetical derivation from the circle dance to be verified. The bourrée is known to have many variants, including one that involves four male dancers. In the evolution of things, one notes the appearance of couple dances that feature the circle formation, and thus the group: this is the case of the rigodon of the French Alps and the furlana of the Italian Alps. One of the historical rules is that the couple face each other without touching. The moving closer together of the couple and the embracing of one’s partner are recent phenomena; they appeared in the nineteenth century and are the result of the influence of European ballroom dances on the rural milieu.

Spain, which has a large number of couple dances, also considered the issue of origins in its own way. The most well-known of these dances are the seguidilla, fandango, jota and bolero. They are attested from the seventeenth century. However, a drawing made in Andalusia in 1529 by the German traveller Christopher Weiditz confirms the existence of one of the earliest couple dances. It depicts two Moors of the opposite sex; the woman spreads out her fingers as in flamenco. A number of specialists have claimed that this was the result of the influence of Islam. In fact, the opposite is true. The adoption by the Moors of Mozarab customs, insofar as the couple dance was not practised in North Africa, allowing for exceptions (for example, the houara of Morocco), or in the Near East.

Individual dances

Particularly rare in this part of the Mediterranean, the individual dance was put in the limelight by flamenco beginning in the late nineteenth century. Certain forms were danced by a single woman, such as the soleà, others by a single man, such as the farruca. Since then, this division has grown less strict, and both men and women take part in the same dances, such as for example, the bulerías. As an individual dance, flamenco has brought to fame dancers such as Carmen Amaya. Since then it has evolved to form a corps de ballet. In Portugal, there is a fandango for a single man, a real curiosity.

Line dances

In a geographical area covering North Africa, from Sinai in the east to the fringes of the Moroccan Atlas Mountains to the west, group dances feature one line of dancers or two parallel lines of dancers facing each other. This figuration predominates in local dances, although it is not exclusive, as the circle dance also exists, probably the result of sub-Saharan influence. The line dance is a structure characterised by its arrangement in a straight line, or two parallel lines of dancers facing each other. The dancers huddle up against each other, shoulder to shoulder, without holding hands. This structure is also present in the Arabian Peninsula. It can feature men only, women only, a line alternating both sexes (the ahidus of Morocco), a line of men facing an individual woman dancer (the dahiyya of Sinai and the damma of Port Said) or a mixed couple (the houara of Morocco). When it comprises two parallel lines, this structure functions antiphonally, which means that the dancers of the first line begin the singing while advancing and retreating, while the line opposite responds in turn. This musical organisation of two straight lines facing each other corresponds to a rectangle on the ground.

In North Africa, dance is inextricably linked to singing, poetry and musical instruments, especially frame drums and outdoor oboes, and forms a whole, thus bearing witness to its archaism. This characteristic is particularly strong in the ahouach of the Berbers of Morocco, which hinges on two variants, the circle and parallel lines.

In the local tradition, the line dance can be sacred or profane. When it is sacred, it determines the dhikr in Egypt, which is also known as the hadra. Although the hadra called for a circle formation in the Islam of the Near East, in Egypt, the faithful arranged themselves outside in two parallel lines facing each other. The dhikr led to trance and the movements guiding it were accentuated by a swaying of the arms, resulting in a half turn of the chest to the right and then the left. While Egypt opted for two facing lines, in Tunisia and Morocco, the confraternities that practised this dance opted for a single line, the saff, which may be translated as “row” or “line”. A leader faces the group in order to give it instructions and regulate the homogeneity of the movements triggered by the abrupt lifting of the heel, which propels the body and transmits an undulation to it. There is also a facing lines figuration in the profane version: this is the case of the nakikh dance of Tunisia and the ahidus, a mixed dance of the Berbers of Morocco.

This line structure, so present in the oral traditions of North Africa, must have also in a distant past determined the form of the dance in Pharaonic Egypt, although on this point archaeologists have not brought this feature out, preferring to study the individual dance that also flourished in the time of the pharaohs. A representation in the tomb of Ti in Saqqarah depicts, on three tiered registers from top to bottom, a figuration related to a dance of two parallel lines: musicians are depicted in the upper register and line dancers in the central register. They lift their cradled arms above their heads – it is the first parallel line. The second parallel line is depicted on the lower register in the same arrangement.

These line figurations, so common in North Africa, very often spread war dances. This masculine theme par excellence is widespread in the geographical area. One of the most renowned choreographies of this type is known as alaoui in Algeria (Tlemcen region). It is a war dance associated with the horse. It is characterised by the shaking of the shoulders and chest, another feature characteristic of North African dances. The dancers hold sticks, move forward in line, then form a circle.

Dances of al-Andalus

While the structure in a line or in two facing parallel lines is the basis of the choreography of North Africa and the chain or semicircle structures symbolise the Near East, they must certainly have coexisted in the civilisation of al-Andalus. No traces survive: that is, they were not preserved after the Reconquista. However, vestiges of the line dance are found in the survivals of the Iberian Peninsula. In this regard, in the Asturias (northern Spain), there is a very curious choreography, known locally as corri-corri. It consists of placing six women in a straight line facing a male individual who regulates the movements. The choreography is led by the singing of other women, who beat frame drums. This figuration is almost certainly Berber in origin and this is one of the rare choreographies that is Muslim in influence, which is even more surprising as the region was not subjugated by Arabo-Berber civilisation in the past.

However, in Spain, as in other parts of the Mediterranean region – in Corsica in the past, in Italy nowadays – frameworks bringing together two opposing groups proliferate and also represent the survivals of the line dance of North Africa in this part of Europe. They are generally called Moorish – Moros y Cristianos in Spain – and are performed regularly. One of the most well-know is the festival that takes place annually in the Valencian city of Alcoy.

Individual dances

Famous in Egypt under various names, in the past known as the danse des almées, then the belly dance, nowadays it goes by its original name, raqs sharqī, in the West, where is very popular and widely taught. It is an individual dance for a woman; in an enclosed space, it highlights each part of the body, which becomes independent through the gestures. Toned-down versions of this dance have been spontaneously taken up by women all over North Africa. This pattern filtered into the execution of the Andalusian nubah and is known as Andalusian dance. Might it be the ancestor of the individual dance for women, the flamenco? Originally a fixed dance form, it now calls for mobility.

Ch. P.