Costumes and finery

In Byzantium

During the Early Byzantine period, the basic costume was the tunic, which was worn under a chlamys. The chlamys was an ankle-length mantle fastened at the right shoulder with a fibula. Aristocratic dress differed from ordinary dress in that it featured a greater number of layered tunics, which were longer, in richer fabrics and in a wide variety of bright colours. Aristocratic dress was made out of precious silks embellished with pearls and precious stones, as well as with borders embroidered with gold thread. On the vertical border of the mantle, across the chest, were sewn a pair of tablia, rectangular pieces of fabric whose colour and decoration distinguished them from the rest of the garment. The imperial chlamys was purple with golden tablia, while that of dignitaries was often white with a pair of purple tablia. Purple silks, blattia, were reserved for the emperor and his family, but individuals outside the imperial family could be granted the right to wear pieces – strips or borders – of purple fabric. The fibulae fastening the mantle were honorary insignia, as were torcs – thick metal necklaces. The fibula of the imperial chlamys was round and had three pendants; that of dignitaries was in the shape of a crossbow.

The symmetrical mosaic panels of Justinian and Theodora in the choir of the church of San Vitale in Ravenna are a lifelike illustration of the shimmering costumes and jewels of the imperial couple and high-ranking court dignitaries. Justinian wears a diadem (stemma) made of a row of cabochons of precious stones between two rows of pearls flanked by two small chains from which are suspended large pear-shaped pearls. His fibula is made of a round cabochon surrounded with pearls from which hang three small chains ending in large pear-shaped pearls. Theodora’s diadem features a central cabochon topped by a sort of aigrette of three large oblong pearls, which is flanked by two other cabochons in settings that form triangular projections also topped with oblong pearls. Two long strings of pearls, the prependoulia, hang from either side of the diadem. It is difficult to distinguish between the rows of precious stones and pearls sewn onto the empress’s neckline – and those of her ladies-in-waiting – and the real jewellery worn on the bust. The pearls sewn onto the cuffs of the tunics are also difficult to tell apart from the bracelets. The border of Theodora’s mantle is enriched with the composition of The Adoration of the Magi, which emphasises the idea of the offering illustrated in these panels. The vast surviving Byzantine repertory of Egyptian textiles shows the multiplicity of religious and apotropaic motifs that decorated garments with the aim of protecting the wearer in everyday life.[1]

The chlamys continued to be worn during the Middle Byzantine period, when it was made of purple, red, blue, green, yellow and white fabrics embellished with geometric, plant and animal motifs. The decorative borders, which were usually woven of gold thread, highlighted its ornamental function. Decorative armbands often bore pseudo-Kufic decorations inspired by the tir?z worn by Islamic nobles. The Middle Byzantine chlamys was not always ankle-length, sometimes stopping at mid-calf. It was fastened at the right shoulder or at the front with two clasps, a Middle Byzantine development. During this period, the shape of the fibula also changed. The imperial fibula was round, with no pendants, or rectangular and arch-topped, decorated with gems or cloisonné enamel. Dignitaries’ brooches were also round. The famous frontispiece of the manuscript of Saint John Chrysostom’s homilies (Coislin 79, Bibliothèque nationale de France), featuring the solemn image of Emperor Nicephorus III Botaneiates (1078–81) flanked by four dignitaries, shows the splendour of court costume during the Middle Byzantine period[2] The eunuch standing to the emperor’s right stands out because of his magnificent costume decorated with interlaced medallions that contain gold and red lions against a white ground. His costume is reminiscent of a surviving silk from the reliquary of Saint Siviard in Sens, which is decorated with medallions containing griffins on a white ground.[3]

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the chlamys disappeared completely and was replaced by caftans, mantles and headdress of Oriental origin. The caftan was the garment most commonly worn by court dignitaries. Made of precious fabrics and decorated with geometric, plant and animal motifs, it was ankle-length and buttoned at the front. It was worn with a leather belt decorated with metal embellishments. A word of Persian origin, kabbadion, was usually used to describe this type of garment. It was worn with a turban. The impressive headdress worn by Theodore Metochites in the dedicatory mosaic in the Chora Church (Kariye Camii) in Constantinople (c. 1315–20/1) is reminiscent of a turban but may also be a hat made of padding covered with fabric. From around the 1320s, there is evidence that Oriental silks woven with gold thread, camoca, were imported. Despite the weight of tradition, the adoption of Oriental fashions and the import of Oriental silks in Constantinople was a process that developed over the centuries, well before the break with Byzantine tradition that occurred in the fourteenth century. The arrival in Constantinople of high-quality Western woollen and silk textiles must also have favoured this new tendency. Garments and headdresses were produced abroad or were local products inspired by foreign goods.[4]

B.P.

In Islam

Despite various local customs, fashions, and the distinction between male and female costumes and finery—dress varied according to social class and there was specific attire for certain activities (hunting and battle)—there were certain standard items of clothing in Islamic culture that were worn in all the civilization’s geographic and cultural zones. Dress comprised two main types of clothing: outer garments, which were long, draped, or shaped and sewn; and undergarments, which were always shaped and sewn. In general, the clothing was ample and concealed the wearer’s form.

The texts of the Greek authors provide the only source of information about dress in Arabia before the advent of Islam. The izar, a long piece of draped clothing that was held in place with a belt, was the principal item. The populations living in regions that were part of the Roman and Iranian Empires adopted the dress styles of their rulers[5].

From the era of the Prophet, the clothing was simple and functional. The izar was the standard item of clothing. The body shirt (qamīs) was covered by the jubba, a woollen tunic with narrow sleeves that was Byzantine in origin. A long coat was worn over this item. The historic sources mention the items of clothing worn by Muhammad: the hulla was a long, flowing coat and the qabā

The expansion of the Islamic empire during the Umayyad and Abbasid epochs established clothing traditions that moved away from the austerity dictated by the Medina umma (‘municipal code’). Luxurious fabrics were introduced relatively early. During the Umayyad period, tirāz workshops were established; they produced fabrics with (generally narrow) bands of ornamental kufic inscriptions. This institution may have had Byzantine or Sassanid origins, and continued in later epochs. The tirāz honorific robes were ceremonial clothes that indicated the wearer’s special social status and were bestowed as tokens of royal favour.

While official Abbasid robes were black, there was a growing interest in dress and clothing fashions during this period. At the same time, Iranian dress — which could be seen on the caliphal statues in architectural decorations from the Umayyad era — was becoming increasingly dominant. This phenomenon was due to the presence of Iranian viziers at the court, who wore stockings (jawrabī), the kalansuwa or tawila, tall, conical headwear with a reed or wooden armature covered in cloth, and the caftan.

In Fatimid Egypt (969–1171), costume and finery played a crucial role in ceremonial and court life. The government costume supply house, the dar al-kiswa[7], oversaw the fabrication and distribution of costumes. The wearer’s rank and function were indicated by these clothes made from expensive fabrics that were embroidered with gold and silver. The caliph’s dress was distinguished by his shāshiyya, an enormous turban that was adorned with precious stones. During this epoch the kalūta appeared a hat that was very fashionable under the Ayyubids and the Mamluks. The sumptuous decorative accessories comprised earrings, belts, bracelets, and so on, which were made using elaborate techniques (filigree and engrailed work). The Geniza[8]manuscripts constitute a valuable source of information on dress during the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk periods. Included are accounts of the names and characteristics of around 25 items of clothing.

The influence of Central Asia, introduced in the eleventh century by the Turkish Muslim dynasties, mainly related to military and ceremonial attire. The Turkish-style coats (al akbiya al-turkiyya), which fastened diagonally across the chest, were in fashion during the Saljuq and Ayyubid periods (eleventh to thirteenth centuries)[9]. The Mamluks of Egypt (1249–1517) wore various garments, including a coat known as ‘Tartar’ and they wore many types of hats and turbans, including the sharbush, a stiff hat with a triangular front that was sometimes trimmed with fur. 

In the Ottoman era, military and ceremonial attire continued to be Turkish. The fashion for the caftan[10]—a full-length garment, whose form and sleeve length varied according to the models, and which was worn overloose-fitting pantaloons—became very popular.

This very emblematic oriental clothing was offered to foreign emissaries in the framework of diplomatic relations. In the fourteenth century, this attire was documented as being worn by dignitaries of the Byzantine court.

Luxurious fabrics, which were sometimes Italian, were used for the fabrication of the ceremonial attire in the Topkapi Palace treasury, and were only matched by the sumptuous and rich finery of the sultans, who wore turbans whose size greatly impressed Westerners[11]. In the second half of the sixteenth century, books of costumes produced in Turkey and exported to Europe attest to Westerners’ interest in foreign customs and cultures at that time[12].

In North Africa and Spain, after the Arab conquest, the dress adopted by the ruling elites copied the caliphal fashion in the Near East. However, the rest of the local populations dressed in the local fashions.

In the Maghreb, the main items of dress were the burnus (a hooded cloak, whose form may have originated in the woollen mantles of the Roman legionnaires), and the kisā (a large piece of cloth thrown over the shoulder worn by the Berber populations, which probably had its origins in the lodix and the stragula, two wraps commonly worn in Roman North Africa).

In Spain, the caliphs’ attachment to Umayyad practices gradually changed; dress was complemented by Christian garments from the North of the Iberian Peninsula.

The new Almoravid masters (North Africa and Spain, 1056–1147) dressed like the Saharan Berbers, with the face half covered. Thanks to the political unification of the Maghreb and Spain, Andalusian fashions spread throughout North Africa along with jewellery made using elaborate technical processes that were practised until quite recently[13]. The moral austerity of the Almohads (Spain and North Africa, 1130–1209) heavily influenced clothing styles. A turban complemented male attire, which comprised a burnus and akisā, and women systematically wore the veil. These dress practices continued into later periods. The arrival of the Jews and Andalusians of Spain during the Christian Reconquista introduced new forms of clothing to the Maghreb. During the Ottoman epoch, Turkish dress spread throughout the major urban centres of North Africa.

C. S.