Forms and motifs

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In Byzantium

The art of the Eastern Roman Empire was, from its very beginnings, embellished with a rich ornamental repertory used on all supports. First on the floor mosaics and the architectural sculpture, then on the walls of the churches and in the minor arts, the geometric, animal, floral and plant motifs took on a triple role—educational, symbolic and decorative—that made their use essential. In manuscripts, these motifs also accompanied the text. They became the visual indicators of all textual separations and helped guide the reader through the text. Geometric, animal, floral or plant motifs marked the beginning or end of a chapter or passage, framing a miniature or highlighting an initial.

The study of forms and motifs underlines the change in ornamental decoration and its constant evolution from Early Christian art until the art of the end of the Byzantine Empire. The inventory of motifs allows us to distinguish three principal groups: geometric motifs, animal motifs and composite floral-plant motifs. During the Early Christian period, the ornamental repertory was based on the use of long rows of geometric motifs, rows of circles, Greek frets, garlands and foliage, all associated with animal motifs, which retained a symbolic meaning. Over the centuries, although the decorative vocabulary was enriched with new elements, the various motifs of the Early Christian period continued to be used during the Byzantine period. The new creations that appeared were due, on the one hand, to the evolution of the decoration itself and, on the other, to the influence of Islamic art.

As it came into contact with Islam over the eighth century, the ornamental decoration of Byzantine art was enriched with Eastern elements. It is certain that the greatest number of similarities has been observed in Umayyad art, which succeeded Sasanian art, and which endured in Islamic art proper (Abbasid and Fatimid). The designs and motifs of embellishments may be cited at length as evidence of the relation between Byzantine and Islamic art (the tree of life, the split or winged palmettes that fill the lozenges or the circles, the antithetic lyre motifs and the heart-shaped elements).

Ornamental decoration flowered from the Macedonian renaissance onwards, corresponding to the blossoming of artistic activity. From the ninth to the eleventh century, the evolution of ornamental art underwent no major changes. The motifs used were rather limited and still in the shadow of ancient traditions. From the early twelfth century, the ornamental vocabulary changed, thanks to new stylised elements, but did not reach its peak until the Palaeologi era when it incorporated extravagant, fantastic and/or pseudo-naturalistic elements. The minor arts—textiles, sculpture and especially the goldsmith’s art—unquestionably contributed to the renewal of the ornamental repertory.

Floral and plant motifs were the motifs used the most often in ornamental decoration and—despite a certain stylisation and schematisation—may be considered a pure creation of the minds and imaginations of Byzantine artists. Certain floral ornaments, inherited from the past, were enriched by new elements and gained in assurance, as was the case with foliage, palmettes, heart-shaped motifs, fleurons and interlacing. These motifs, used in horizontal or vertical bands and rarely as the decoration for a large surface, were widely used in mosaics, frescos and manuscripts until the art of the end of the Byzantine Empire. The geometric motifs never ceased being a part of the decorative vocabulary. Whether simple lines or stylised, they were as a rule used as borders to highlight architectural elements or to better define and frame the iconographic themes. Finally, animal motifs, although less fashionable than in Western art, were in common use since the Early Christian period. Animals, birds and fantastic creatures cover many floor mosaics, are sculpted on capitals and sarcophagi, make up historiated initials, frame ornamental paintings and decorate the margins of Byzantine manuscripts. Far from being merely ornamental elements, they took on a symbolic meaning.

E. Y.

In Islam

In Islam, ornamentation has been used on all kinds of objects and materials: ceramic, glass, and metal utensils, stone and brick buildings, stucco and mosaic architectural decorations, books, textiles, and so on. One of the characteristics of Islamic ornamentation is the unity of the decorative elements: whether the motifs are vegetal, geometric, epigraphic, or figural, they have been applied indifferently to every type of support. Various methods were used to decorate the entire support, as the horror vacuiwas also a characteristic of Islamic ornamentation

While Islam perpetuated the antique traditions in its use of vegetal and geometric designs, its innovation lay in transforming these patterns and giving them a central importance. Geometric vegetal, and epigraphic designs were no longer minor motifs, and merely embellishments of a mainly figural scene, but instead became ornamentation in their own right that wasn’t constrained by a figural element. While Islamic ornamentation does not explicitly exclude figural representation, it was forbidden from being used on religious edifices or objects.

Vegetal motifs

The arabesque was a characteristic of the Muslim world, and resulted from extreme stylization—that was almost abstract—of natural vegetal motifs from the antique repertoire (palmettes, acanthus leaves, grapes, and vine scrolls). Theseantique plant forms, which were were curved and counter-curved, were taken apart and rearranged. The stem, with its sinusoidal movements, could be indefinitely reproduced in symmetrical combinations, and arranged in horizontal and vertical axes.Empty spaces were filled with palmettes or half-palmettes. After the Mongol invasions, however, there wasa return to the naturalism initiated in Iran,with the representation of eglantines, carnations, and tulipswith long, slightly curved and serrated leaves.

Geometric motifs

Geometric shapes became highly sophisticated, because unlike their antique versions, they were no longer seen as perfect shapes in their own right but rather as forms that could be used to generate other motifs. The geometric motifs were very often broken, recomposed, and interlaced. There were three principal motifs: the circle, the square, and the triangle. Squares and lozenges of varying sizes were combined in various directions to create polygons or stars. The circle was used as a single motif, or repeated and interwoven; some of its sections were sometimes removed to create original motifs.

Epigraphic motifs

The use of ornamental epigraphy was highly original and was connected to the prestige associated with the practice of writing in Islam—the transcription of the divine word.Calligraphy became an art and a science because the Qur’an was copied as often and as perfectly as possible. The ornamentalists managed to exploit the elegance and decorative value of the Arabic letters by inventing very varied styles, including the main styles of kufic, an angular and austere form, and naskh, cursive writing. In contrast to other forms of ornamentation, which have an esoteric significance, the epigraphic motifs conveyed a comprehensible message—at least for anyone who could read. However, it is sometimes difficult—even impossible—to read. The use of ornamental epigraphy had two functions: as an enunciation and as a visual mechanism for transmitting God’s word, and, by extension, an expression of His presence.

Figurative motifs

With the exception of several representations of the prophet, who was depicted with his face veiled or uncovered, most figural scenes were secular: a prince in majesty, hunting and battle scenes, and drinking scenes with dancers and musicians. Medieval images of animalswere extremely varied: wild animals, birds of prey, dragons, sphinxes, and harpieswere the most commonly depicted animals. Originally, the representations were relatively naturalistic, but they eventually became semi abstract in design. Therefore, while the general shape of the animals remained the same, physical details, like feathers or fur, were progressively omitted and were eventually replaced by ornamentation. The animal’s outline often followed the object’s shape, which created somedistortion.

According to Oleg Grabar, the primordial importance of ornamentation is the defining characteristic of Islamic art, in which the ‘ornamental mode’ allowed the expression of sensual pleasure to take precedence over any message and enabled spectators to choose their own interpretation.

J. B.