Religious life

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Selection of images from the Qantara corpus

In Byzantium

The main religion in the Byzantine Empire was the Middle Eastern version of Christianity, Orthodoxy. The heart of this religion derived from Judaism is the faith in Jesus Christ, God made man, dead and resurrected. After centuries of persecution the emperor Constantine published in 313 an edict of tolerance. In 392 Theodosius I imposed Christianity as the religion of the Empire.

The basic structure of the religion was the local Church run by a bishop, successor of the apostles. Local Churches were grouped into dioceses modeled on the organization of the imperial administration. They were grouped into provinces run by a Metropolitan. These were then gathered around prestigious Churches, the patriarchates: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The bishops of the five patriarchates gathered into ecumenical councils to solve common questions relating to dogma and organization. After the seventh century, since the Middle Eastern patriarchates were on Muslim lands, the rivalry between Rome and Constantinople took center stage. From the ninth century Rome’s determination to impose its authority to the whole of the church sparked off an enduring conflict with Constantinople (the 1054 schism).

The Constantinople patriarch, appointed by the emperor who chose him from a list of three names, was the bishop of the capital, where he officiated in the Hagia Sophia Basilica. He administered the churches in his jurisdiction with the help of a permanent synod formed by the metropolitan bishops present in Constantinople. The metropolitans and the bishops (unmarried) managed parishes served by a clergy whose members were married and often poor.

Relations with the emperor were complex. As the head of an empire that he wanted to be universal, the emperor thought of himself as the lieutenant of God on earth. In theory, managing the Empire was a matter of harmony between the temporal power (the emperor) and the spiritual power (the patriarch). In practice, the emperor often imposed his will upon the patriarch and the disputes then came not from the clerics but from the monks.

The secular clergy, centered on priesthood, was in competition with the monks who lived in solitude or in communities and whose evangelical radicalism was a challenge to the compromises the hierarchical church made with the lay world. The emperors’ and bishops’ efforts ended up integrating monachism into the Church but the monks remained more independent than the official Church and sometimes contradicted the imperial policies (iconoclasm, negotiations with the Roman Church).

The religious life of the faithful was structured by the liturgical life. The initiation sacraments which inaugurated and articulated membership to the Church were baptism - with the baptism of mall children gradually replacing adult baptism), chrismation (receiving the Holy Spirit) and Eucharist (communion with the body and the blood of Jesus Christ. The Eucharistic synaxe was an important moment of religious practice. Another was penance (forgiveness of sins). The public penance of the first centuries was gradually replaced by an individual practice whereby the sinner confessed his sins to a priest. This rite which resulted from monachism was claimed by both the traditional Church - who believed that this sacrament was within the remit of bishops who could delegate it to priests - and by the monks who believed it was a part of spiritual direction and wanted it restricted to charismatic monks (Symeon the New Theologian in the tenth century).

The liturgical year which gave its rhythm to Byzantine life was organized around the Easter festivities (the resurrection of Christ) and Christmas and Epiphany festivities (birth and manifestation  of Christ)

But religious life was not limited to prayer assembles. The clerics, guardians of orthodoxy (true faith) against superstitions linked to remains of paganism tried to channel a composite faith which encompassed several spiritual movements. The imperial movement with its Pantocrator Christ (creator of the universe) to whom the Emperor identifies, existed side by side with a spiritualist movement wary of figurative representations even in prayers, and an emotional movement centered on a personal relationship with the human side of Jesus. In times of crisis (war, famine, epidemics) feelings of fear mingled with elements of guilt (catastrophes being brought on by sins) outweighed feelings of affection and resulted in generous gifts to the monks who were responsible for temporal safeguard and eternal salvation.

The cult of Christ’s and saints’ relics (considered to possess miraculous properties) combined with the need for figurative representations that humanized the religion resulted in the veneration of images of Christ and the saints. In the eighth and ninth centuries the emperors tried to forbid the veneration of images or even the representation of Christ. After centuries of divisions caused by these iconoclastic policies, the images and the cult of images won (843 The Triumph of Orthodoxy). The image became a symbol of Byzantine piety; whether it consisted of frescoes and mosaics in churches, or portable wooden icons where the subject was represented facing forward, thus making a personal relationship easier.

M.-H. C.

In Islam

Muslim religion is the base upon which Islamic civilisation was built. Islam, that is to say the submission to God (Allah) recognises the divine unicity and transcendence. Every believer (mu’min), every Muslim, must assert his belief in God and respect the rules of religion in order to be saved come the Last Judgement.

Islam was born in 610 with the beginning of the Qur’anic revelation to Muhammad, God’s final prophet, but officially the Islamic era only started in 622, with the Hijrah, the migration of the Prophet and the first Muslims from Mecca to Medina. For twenty-two years, the angel Gabriel was said to have transmitted the divine message to Muhammad. That revelation is the basis for the Muslim faith and for Muslim religious practices. Thus, the third caliph, ?Uthm?n, (644–56), is supposed to have ordered the recension and drafting of the 114 suras of the Holy Book. The Qur’an is considered the expression of the word of God and as such immutable and everlasting;

The Muslim religion defines faith, ritual practices and morals, as well as social and legal life. When the Qur’an does not mention a specific topic, the Muslims turn to the Hadith, normative examples of the life and words of the Prophet and his companions. The authenticity of some of the Hadith is contested, and this led several specialists to verify then compile the Hadith in two large collections, the Sahih Bukhari and the Sahih Muslim. These sacred texts define the Sunna. The Sunna and the Qur’an are the sources of Muslim law, the sharia.

These religious norms were therefore put in place gradually, whether in ‘ib?d?t (cultural matters) or mu??mal?t (social interaction).

As far as religion is concerned, a broad consensus recognises the five pillars of Islam: shah?dah, the profession of faith; sal?t, prayer; zak?t, paying an alms (or charity) tax to benefit the poor and the needy; sawm, fasting during the month of Ramadan; and hajj, pilgrimage to Mecca The Shiites add to this list wal?ya, devotion towards their imam. As for, jihad, holy war, it is a collective religious obligation, not an individual one, and as such it is not included in the five pillars, although it is recognised by all Muslims.

Some of those obligations pertaining to worship, such as alms, have social implications as well; they complete the social obligations and prescriptions. These regulate family life and social interactions, including the status of women, inheritance, forbidden foods, the interdiction to charge interest on loans, etc. Personal status is also seen as belonging to the domain of religion. It covers, for example, the relations between a free man and a slave or the distinction between Muslims and tributaries, - known as dhimmi, or People of the Book, whose religion is based on sacred books recognised by Islam, such as the Pentateuch or Torah and the Gospels.

Differences in opinion about the application of these rules were reinforced because of the controversy over the exactness and interpretation of sacred texts. This resulted in an early religious pluralism. The first decades of the new religion saw the split into Sunnites and Shiites. The Sunnites believe that the community of believers (the umma) should be led by a caliph chosen for his moral and religious virtues. The Shiites, on the other hand, believe that the successor to the Prophet must come from the hereditary lineage of his son-in-law, ?Al?. The Kh?rijites separated from the Shiites in 657 after the Battle of Siff?n, after ?Al? decided to accept arbitration with the Sunnites.

Within Sunnism an effort of reflection (ijtih?d) was acknowledged to be the way to resolve unanswered juridical questions, so much so that four main schools of jurisprudence (madhhab) emerged. They are the M?lik?, Hanaf?, Sh?fi?? and Hanbal? madhhab. Other, minor schools disappeared.

From a theological point of view, that same will to get a more precise view of sacred texts gave birth to kal?m, speculative theology. Several religious currents developed, including the Mu?tazil?, Ash?ar?, and M?tur?d? schools; the Hanbal? school, despite its literal approach, also produced theology treatises. Shiite theology emphasises the question of imams and is divided into three main branches: the Twelvers, the Ismailis and the Zaydis. In the eighth century, the Sufi movement made its appearance. Its masters teach a spirituality and rites that are different from Shiite and Sunnite orthodoxy, and favour asceticism and mysticism.

Religious life is ever present for the believers but it is also centered/focussed on a few sacred sites, most importantly the three holy cities: Mecca, the site of the Kaaba, Medina and Jerusalem. The Shiites add to that list Najaf and Karbala, places where their imams were martyred. Muslims also practise their religion in mosques (masjid) where they pray and learn the Qur’an. The Great Mosque or Friday Mosque is where the community meets for the Friday lunchtime prayer and preaching (khutba). A large space, the musalla, is generally favoured for the solemn prayers of the two major festivals. The festival of sacrifice, Eid al-Adha (“the great festival”), is celebrated on the tenth of the month of Dhul Hijjah in the Islamic lunar calendar. Eid al-Fitr, the Festival of Breaking the Fast (‘id el sagh?r, “the small festival”), marks the end of the Ramadan fast. It is celebrated on the first day of the month of Shawwal. Other sacred periods are also marked by religious festivals, for example the anniversary of the birth of the Prophet. Muslims can also gather around the graves of saints (wali). These practices largely came into their own from the eleventh century around Sufi brotherhoods (tariqa). These groups tend to mainly gather in monastic complexes (ribat, zawiyya, etc.) where the sacred takes on a more mystical dimension. On the other hand, from the twelfth century madrasahs, new places for the study of religion and jurisprudence (fiqh) started to multiply around the orthodox religiosity of Sunni scholars (the ulema). They influenced religious life, as well as social life and sacred architecture.

These scholars, Sufis and dervishes comprise a religious class Muslims turn to when they need the answers to religious, legal and social questions. There is no Sunni clergy as such, although those scholars can occupy legal or religious official posts. The Shiites, on the other hand, recognise a highly hierarchical organisation of religious authority.

C. O.

In Western Europe

The origins

From the first to the third century, Christianity, like other cults from the East, had developed in the Roman Empire without a legal status. Christian communities were sometimes persecuted, but more often ignored by the authorities, gathering in private house churches. One of those house churches dating from the third century was discovered in Syria on the banks of the Euphrates in Dura-Europos, a town located on a major commercial crossroads where, during the third century, a large number of religions flourished. Installations set up for baptism and the Eucharist have been found, and they show that religious practices were in existence before Christian worship was legalised in 313.

Although individual prayer did not require a specific space, community celebrations whose focus was on sacraments had to take place in spaces arranged for that purpose. However, the catacombs, large underground necropolis that started being used in the third century – mainly in Rome – were never used for celebrations, nor were they used as refuges during times of persecution. People only went there to pray on the graves of the departed.

The sacraments, the foundation of religious life

For Christians, a sacrament is a divine manifestation, “a visible indication of the love of God”. It was only during the thirteenth century that the number of sacraments was fixed at seven, including marriage and anointing of the sick (second council of Lyon, 1274). On the other hand, baptism and its continuation, confirmation (the Orthodox chrismation), penance (or confession) and the Eucharist, which concerned all Christians, as well as the sacerdotal ordination of priests date from the beginnings of Christianity.

Baptism allows the baptised to enter the Christian community. It used to consist of a total immersion in a cistern of water, replicating Jesus Christ’s immersion in the Jordan River by John the Baptist, and was originally performed by bishops. In 313 Constantine and Licinius issued a joint edict proclaiming religious toleration for all forms of worship in the Roman Empire, Christianity included. From then on, a specific architecture could develop. One of the very first baptisteries, the one abutting the Basilica of Saint John Lateran – dating from AD 315–20 – is an emblematic example. The cistern is set in the middle of a central-plan building, the kind of structure usually used in this type of edifice. Octagonal buildings, which bring to mind Roman mausoleums, are a reminder of the meaning of baptism. According to Saint Paul, it signifies the death of the sinner and his rebirth with the resurrected Christ. The Ravenna Orthodox Baptistery, built in the same shape, is decorated with scenes usually found in funerary contexts or catacomb iconography.

Confirmation, the sacrament that completes baptism, was also administered by a bishop in a room linked to the baptistery and known as a consignatorium. In the original liturgy, the postulant who wished to join the community – known as a catechumen – had to undergo instruction during Easter night under the authority of the bishop. After a penitential preparation, he was baptised then received his confirmation and on Easter morning, he took part in the sacrament of the Eucharist (receiving his first communion), an essential celebration of a sacrificial nature. The structure of the episcopal see of Aquileia reflects this rite, as physical as it is spiritual.

From the sixth and seventh centuries, baptism was received increasingly early in life, as people were scared of dying before having been christened. The multiplication of the number of baptisms meant that the sacrament was then given by priests who baptised newborns the whole year round. They are not fully immersed but simply sprinkled with water while being held above a cistern. When this type of baptism replaced baptism by immersion, the change led to the disappearance of cisterns and baptisteries. Thus a basin, the “baptismal fount”, was generally placed in a chapel of the church, symbolically near the entrance. Some baptisteries, for example in Pisa or Florence, were rebuilt in the Middle Ages to house the founts. Confirmation, administered by the bishop, consists of anointing with sacred oils and is administered later in life before the first Eucharist, at the age of reason.

Organisation of the clergy

From the beginnings of Christianity, communities designated bishops, priests and deacons. Later other ministries followed:  readers, subdeacons and, for women, consecrated virgins and widows. Together, they constituted the clergy. After 313 the bishops – considered the successors of the apostles – were placed at the head of dioceses, territorial districts corresponding to the Roman administrative organisation of cities. Since the dioceses were under the authority of metropolitan cities, metropolitan bishops, later known as archbishops, were placed above bishops. The pallium, a thin strip of white woollen cloth adorned with black crosses bestowed by the pope, was a sign of their authority. As Lyon was the capital of Gaul, its archbishop bore the honorary title, “Primate of the Gauls”. Until 1622 Paris merely had a bishop who was under the authority of the archbishop of Sens. Sens used to be a Roman metropolis and Paris – which was later to become a capital – was in its jurisdiction. From the sixth century, priests, under the authority of bishops, were placed at the head of parishes, thus allowing for a better care of the faithful. Thanks to their ordination, they were responsible for the spiritual welfare of their parishioners. In this respect, Western practices are fairly similar to those of the Christian East: the liturgical year and festivals follow the same cycles, and the worship of saints and sacred relics is just as important.

One of the essential differences between the Orthodox Churches and the Roman Catholic Church is the recognition of the pope’s authority. In late antiquity, the word “pope” (father), derived from the Greek pappas, was a generic name for an ecclesiastic. However, the bishop of Rome, linked to the capital of the empire where the graves of the apostles Peter and Paul were situated, laid claim to a special authority. During the fourth and fifth centuries, the bishop of Constantinople, where an emperor resided, and those of the historical cities of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem also asserted their special dignity. They, along with the bishop of Rome, became patriarchs, thus forming a pentarchy. The unity was confirmed in spite of the differences in languages and rites, and all major decisions were taken collectively by the bishops from all over the empire during the ecumenical councils. However, the deposing of the last Western Roman emperor in 476 allowed the patriarch of Rome to take on a new role. After the collapse of the empire and the founding of new kingdoms, he was the only remaining authority in the West to inherit the prestige of the imperial city he defended. Thanks to popes with strong personalities, such as Gregory the Great, the pope’s function became preeminent, putting him once and for all at the head of the Catholic hierarchy. During the Carolingian era – in the mid-eighth century – a false donation by Constantine of the city of Rome became the basis of the temporal authority of the pope over Rome and of the creation of the Papal States from territories captured from the Lombards by Pepin the Short. This caused tensions with the emperor and the patriarch of Constantinople, but the schism that gave birth to independent churches occurred three centuries later.

The Roman Catholic Church

During the High Middle Ages, lay people tried to seize the Church’s assets, or to intervene in the nomination of clerics, bishops and even the pope. In the eleventh century, the Gregorian Reform – named after Gregory VII – lead the Church to try to assert its independence. The pope had to be elected exclusively by the College of Cardinals, dignitaries descending from the Roman clergy of antiquity. The bishops are first chosen by priests close to the bishop, the canons, who have formed communities since the Carolingian era. They are then confirmed by the archbishops who are under the direct authority of the pope. The priests and the rest of the clergy are under the authority of the bishops. At the same time, a moral reform was taking place: priests were not allowed to marry or cohabit. This strengthening of papal authority led to several crises, in particular with the Holy Roman Emperor. Those measures had another consequence: after the Schism of 1054, the Church became officially divided. However, it was during the sack of Constantinople in 1204 during the Sixth Crusade, that Christians became aware of the depth of the division.

Although the Gregorian Reform strengthened the Catholic Church, it went through severe crises. The Late Middle Ages were a difficult time. In the fourteenth century, the destruction wreaked by famines, the Black Death and wars were such that people started having grave doubts about that institution, since it seemed so far away from the apostolic ideal. Moreover, from 1305 the election of several French popes means that although it was going through great difficulties, the city of Rome was neglected. The pontiffs chose to live in Avignon, in the South of France. In 1376 the pope went back to Rome, where he died in 1378. The cardinals in RomeAvignon. However, they did not choose the same person. Western Christians chose one or the other, and that divided Western Christendom: the Great Western Schism, which was resolved – albeit with difficulty – by the Council of Constance. The seat of the papacy, which used to be in the Lateran Palace, next to Saint John’s Basilica, was transferred to the Vatican. The ancient Saint Peter’s Basilica dating to the reign of Constantine was rebuilt, and the works took over a century to complete. elected a successor. And so did the cardinals in

The crises of the Late Middle Ages lead to doubts about the Church. A more individual form of spirituality developed. These factors paved the way for the Reformation in the early sixteenth century and the founding of the Protestant Churches.

Th. S.